The concept of the right to education as part of international human rights law* appears for the first time in 1948, in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 10^th of the same year (1). This right was confirmed in 1960 in the Convention against Discrimination in Education and, in 1966, in the Recommendation Concerning the Condition of Teachers.

It was 18 years after the adoption of the UDHR that the content on the right to education was detailed in Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2). This Covenant was adopted and opened to signature, ratification and adherence by the UN General Assembly by Resolution 2200 A (XXI) on December 16, 1966.

Ten more years went by before the Covenant’s entry into force on January 3, 1976, in accordance with the provisions of Article 27 which stipulates that "The present Covenant shall enter into force three months after the date of the deposit with the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the thirty-fifth instrument of ratification or instrument of accession."

Article 26 of the UDHR and Article 13 of the Covenant assert the right to education for all persons regardless of their age. The Convention on the Rights of the Child, which entered into force on September 2, 1990, stipulates in Article 28 that the States Parties recognize the specific right of children to education (3).

We are in the year 2000, more than a half-century since the adoption of Article 26 of the UDHR, almost a quarter of a century after the ratification of the Covenant, ten years after the ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Where do we stand today with this right to education? The Jomtien Conference (1990) was full of hope ten years ago when it affirmed the desire for education for all by the year 2000. This commitment has not been respected. The deadline was moved to 2015 (4), and nothing today leads us to believe that the objective will be met by that deadline.

Paul Hunt, member of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, summarizes the situation in his General Observations concerning Article 13 of the Covenant: "The Committee is very aware that for millions of people throughout the world, exercising the right to education remains a faraway objective that keeps moving further away. In addition, the Committee is conscious of the fact that there are enormous structural obstacles amongst others that inhibit the full application of Article 13." (5)

*We are looking here only at United Nations international human right law. In addition, there are regional instruments which mention the right to education: Article 49 of the Charter of the Organization of American States (1948) and Article 47 of the Buenos Aires Protocol (1967); Article 2 of the Additional Protocol of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, as amended by Protocol No. 11 (1952); Article 17 of the African Charter for Human and Peoples Rights (1982); Article 11 of the African Charter on the Rights of the Child (1990).

In the report it submitted to this same Committee in December 1999, the World Association for the School as an Instrument of Peace (EIP) noted that "This situation is even more deplorable given the derisory means given by the international community. As part of the "unloved ones" of human rights, i.e. the economic, social and cultural rights, the right to education was conceived in a manner that gives States a wide margin for interpretation and implementation, despite good efforts on the part of the Committee to improve their requirements. Furthermore, it is a right for which no means of recourse has been foreseen. It suffers from this as well as from economic restrictions linked to uncontrolled liberalization."(6)

In its 1999 Annual Report, devoted to the right to education, UNICEF reminds us that "One year before the year 2000, almost one billion inhabitants of this planet do not know how to read or to write their name — much less how to complete a simple form or use a computer. One billion persons continue to live in bad health and in desperate poverty despite the fact that most of them learned to read and write. These are the "functional illiterates", whose numbers today continue to grow." And the authors of the report added: "To guarantee the right to education is a matter of equity, justice and economy."(7)

Furthermore, the absence of systematic counting of the population in a number of countries presents an important obstacle to the universal access to education, in particular, to primary education. Without statistical portraits of the population, without a scholastic mapping, no precise diagnosis can be made. In this domain, Katarina Tomasevski, the Special Reporter on the Right to Education, said that she was "particularly preoccupied by the persistent lack of information concerning the number of children who should be in school, but were not […]. We do not know the exact numbers, given that the most recent census figures of some countries are more than 15 years old and that the systematic registration of births, obligatory through the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, is not yet a reality."(8)

Finally, it needs to be added that in numerous studies and field observations the meaning given to the right of education undoubtedly deserves to be brought up-to-date to include not only quantitative data (the "mathematical" access to education), but also qualitative data (educational subject matter and pedagogical approaches amongst others). In this way, as UNICEF (supra) underlines: " […], it is not enough to ensure that children go to school. We must also be concerned about the quality of the education they receive. The manner in which knowledge, competencies and values are transferred is as important at the content itself."

III. Principal Elements of the Right to Education

Paul Hunt (supra) proposes the following definition of the right to education:

"Education is at the same time a fundamental right in itself and one of the keys in exercising other rights inherent to the human being. As a right that contributes to the autonomy of the individual, education is the main tool allowing economically and socially marginal adults and children to get out of poverty and to obtain the means to fully participate in community life. Education plays a major role: in the responsibilization of women, the protection of children against labor exploitation, dangerous work or sexual exploitation, the promotion of human rights, environmental conservation, population control. Education is increasingly reputed to be one of the best financial investments for States, but its importance lies not only in its practical consequences and possibilities. A well-stocked and active mind, capable of freely wandering, is one of the joys and rewards of existence."

From this definition come a number of useful elements to help identify the principal components of the right to education. They are detailed below, as in a preliminary analysis grid.

1. The personal and social development of the individual

   The right to education "contributes to the autonomy of the individual", that is to say the human person in its singular form. The School, as a social institution, must at the same time "educate the subject" in his/her social role as defined by the rights and responsibilities of a democratic society. The individual’s social development calls for an "ego socialization" with a view to ensure the compatibility between personal interests and the requirements of community life. This difficult balance can be seen as an interiorization of the democratic rules that preside over the capability to live together.

2. Learning democracy

   If it defines itself as democratic, a society institutes norms that protect the individual, a group or a category of persons from the arbitrary. From this optic, education presents itself as a means to learn democracy, in at least two registers. The first concerns school life, with its ability to instigate and cultivate dialogue, to permit having a say, to instill a critical sense. The second expresses the will to include in content and skills building, those competencies that prepare the student to fight against all forms of injustice (discrimination against women, exploitation of children,…) and to instill a sense of social responsibility (environmental conservation,…).

3. Equality of opportunities

   Paul Hunt writes that "education is the main tool allowing economically and socially marginal adults and children to get out of poverty and to obtain the means to fully participate in community life". At a first level of interpretation, this definition inspires discourse on the equality of opportunities, understood here as being the access for all to schooling. It is a matter of equality from the beginning, i.e., from enrolment in school at the youngest age. It is not yet impacted by the hazards of the route brought on by the disparity of the economic, social or cultural conditions of individuals and vulnerable categories of persons (women, minorities, poor children,…). The indicators currently available on, amongst others, the level of scholastic continuance according to type are revealing concerning the persistence of social-scholastic inequality. At a second level of interpretation, the question of equality of opportunity enters into the debate on the difference between the path of education and the quality of educational supervision. On this point, family values, the quality of teacher training, management techniques and the objectives of education policies are amongst the variables that determine educational orientations.

4. Economic effectiveness

   New educational policy directions clearly indicate new expectations concerning the cost effectiveness of education systems. One can frequently read that "education is increasingly reputed to be one of the best financial investments for States". In this respect, the new educational expectations are studded with calls for the cost effectiveness of the system and for the best balance possible between the education given and the demands of the economy. The substitution of an education by objectives by an education by competencies can testify to that up to a certain point. Nevertheless, efforts by States to reduce scholastic failure by professional training adapted to the demand show the effort to fight against social exclusion and for economic development. The debate remains open as to where the "boundaries" are to the professionalization of training before they become confused with the orchestration of educational knowledge, and the cost-effectiveness of education without it becoming the merchandising of training achievements.

5. The quality of education

Paul Hunt is careful to add that the importance of education cannot be summed up in the possibility of a good financial investment for States ("but its importance [to education] is not only in the consequences it has on a practical level or the possibilities it can offer."). The author adds "A well-stocked and active mind, capable of freely wandering, is one of the joys and rewards of existence." Here we can assume that the right to education is not only summed up in a quantitative balance sheet of access to schooling. The question that must be asked is that of the quality of the training received. Non-discriminatory teaching material, pedagogical methodologies that respect the human person, the competence of teachers and the democratic school environment must be looked at attentively.

IV. Some of the Issues

1. Social conditions

   In an Information Letter of the International Education Planning Institute (UNESCO), J.C. Tedesco wrote the following: "It is recognized that students’ living conditions have a determinant impact on their scholastic level. All conclusions regarding educational achievement agree on the fact that scholastic results are dependent on the social status and wellbeing of the family. However, the same research draws attention to another phenomenon less apparent: institutional and pedagogical changes have no effect on the results of students who live below the poverty line." (9) As we know, social-economic waste, dismal sanitary conditions as well as the climate of violence in which many children live are determinant factors in school failure and drop-out.

2. Unequal access to education

   According to statistics provided by UNESCO for 1996, the net rate of enrolment in primary levels shows yet again the gap between rich countries and poor countries. While the rate reaches almost 100% in OECD countries, it falls significantly for Western Africa, particularly for girls:

   Benin (78% boys and 46% girls), Chad (66%B, 37%G), Ivory Coast (63%B, 47%G), Djibouti (36%B, 27%G), Mali (32%B, 21%G), etc. (10). The figures are just as eloquent when comparing the evolution over time to the index of scholastic life expectancy. In 1990, in Canada, this index reached 16 years. In 1996, this index was 2.3 for Niger, the same as in 1990, with 1.7 years of scholastic life expectancy for girls. With regard to the rate of supervision, i.e. the student/teacher ratio, for primary schooling in 1990, the ratio was 57/1 in Burkina Faso (50/1 in 1996), 39.9/1 in Guinea (49.2/1 in 1996) 57.4/1 in Rwanda (58.3/1) in 1996). For the same years, the rate of supervision was, for example, 17.7/1 in Germany (1990 and 1996), 10.3/1 in Denmark (10.1/1 in 1996). These rates equal or exceed 30/1 in a number of South American countries and the Caribbean (Chile, El Salvador, Ecuador, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, The Dominican Republic, Peru as well as Mexico). These figures are averages; they bear witness not to extreme cases, but rather to numerous, daily realities.

3. The cost of schooling

   Quoting a recent World Bank document (Education Sector Strategy, 1999), K. Tomasevski (supra) observes that nothing is said on the subject of the agreement of borrowing countries to ensure compulsory and free primary schooling to all children of school age. The Special Reporter also notes that "International mobilization in favor of an "adjustment with a human face"[…], has been interpreted as a general agreement with the principle that we must protect primary education from budgetary cuts, but […] we have not done enough to ensure that school fees are eliminated, in conformance with the requirements of international human rights law." If the absence of free schooling has above and beyond all a considerable impact on the access to education for children touched by extreme poverty in the less developed countries, the taxation of costs relating to compulsory schooling is starting to weigh heavily on the budgets of poor parents in developed countries. As noted in a report by the State Teachers School in Quebec in 1997, "If there is one essential element to ensure the equality of opportunities, it is indeed free schooling. Already, a number of schools in Quebec find difficulty in providing all students with the required textbooks. Other schools ask increasingly high fees for special projects that are not within the reach of the majority of families." (11)

4. The economizing environment

   According to the Conference of Ministers of Education of French-speaking Countries (CONFEMEN), "the measures taken in the framework of the Structural Adjustment Programs have been implemented [in African countries] in the educational sector as budget freezes, privatization, double-flow classes." (12) In a recent publication, the International Labor Office (13) asked if they could continue in a voluntary environment, "the virtuous circle of "emulation" in favor of social progress in a situation where economic globalization and reinforcement of competition combine their efforts in the opposite direction."

   The logic of a market economy is based on the idea that students represent human capital to be made profitable by the commercialization of the competencies they have acquired during their studies. This capital becomes the key to development and economic growth of societies known as "cognitive" in what is now known as the "new economy", itself having been boosted by the new information and communication technologies. In this scheme, the anticipated economic expansion due to the profitability of individual competencies subjected to the laws of the market is henceforth the guarantor of the announced prosperity boosted by liberalism. According to K. Tomasevski (supra), "An approach based on human capital sees education only from the perspective of knowledge, competencies and qualifications having an economic interest, to the detriment of human rights." The Special Reporter added that "this reduced view inhibits the definition of education in terms of the overall development of the personality, undermines the foundation of an education based on human rights according to which teachers learn to share their knowledge rather than commercialize it and to cooperate rather than to compete."

5. Educational content, practices and values

Access to education for everyone remains a priority on a worldwide scale. This first essential condition to democratization of education does not apply, however, to what one learns at school nor to how one learns. Subject matter that is biased by ethnocentric perceptions or learning methods promoting competition or based on the threat of punishment do not correspond to the spirit of the right to education as seen by those taught to be free and responsible thinkers.

In its report to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural rights (supra), EIP observed that "because of Article 13, States are required not only to monitor textbooks and others as well as pedagogic and didactic materials which are used in their institutions and to eliminate from them any racist, ethnic or sexist stereotypes or any other elements violating human rights, but they are also required to ensure that the content of these manuals and other tools goes in the direction of the objectives and goals foreseen in Article 13 as it has been updated by the Committee and that they must integrate this dimension into the reports they submit to the Committee."

Concerning practices and values, Véronique Truchot (14) wrote: "It must be recognized that the student-teacher relationship by its very nature imposes an inequality of status; but the student always remains equal to the teacher in terms of fundamental rights. If directive behaviors go hand in hand with institutions, we must not lose sight of the fact that schools must form free beings, responsible and concerned about justice. From that, it is expected that the school is a place for learning freedom and, thus, responsibility. If we look at the research concerning the reproductive function of the school, we are led to believe that social order rests on the power to control the dominant groups that use the school to reproduce their dominant position, according to their particular interest [Marie Duru-Bellat and Agnès Henrio-vanZanten, 1992], rather than a means to emancipation. Authority, which should be a vehicle for democratic values, finds itself distorted, which led Mendel [1971] to say that it is nothing more than the mask that mystifies violence."

The right to education represents not only an enormous accomplishment, it also reflects values expressing the desire that individuals be allowed to freely build themselves.

Examples of promising experiences

Following are several examples of initiatives that have been undertaken to ensure the right to education, ranging from access to education issues to research into the quality of teaching. These examples show the importance of the contribution of NGOs, trainers and schools in the implementation of the right to education.

 

Student Government in Costa Rica (extracts) Each year, Costa Rican schools elect a Student Government. The process is the same as that for national elections: nomination of an election tribunal, debates, secret vote, etc. This formula familiarizes children with one of democracy’s tools: ensure that the voice of the people is heard and that there is a balanced representation of all tendencies. Taken from: "Education for International Comprehension. An idea which has made its own way". Prepared by Lucie-Mami Noor Mkaké for the International Bureau of Education, 1998, p.34.

Australia: teaching teachers (extracts) In 1992, the Faculty of Education of Sydney University launched a project to create a selection of reference documents for teaching training institutions that prepare students to teach history, culture and Australian indigenous peoples issues in the school curriculum. Traditionally, Australian indigenous peoples culture and society have been largely ignored or distorted in scholastic programs, which promotes and perpetuates the racist attitudes towards aborigines endemic to the Torres Straits. Teaching teachers is an attempt to bring balance back into a program dominated by the culture of the majority, by giving teachers the skills required to understand and to effectively teach the study of Australian indigenous peoples. Taken from: "Learning to live together through the teaching of history and geography", (IBE, Information and Innovation, June 1998, no. 95, p. 3). Internet: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/.

South America and the Caribbean: increase the rate of access (extracts) The high rates of drop-out and class repetition in primary schools are a serious problem. A quarter of the children who start primary school drop out before reaching the fifth year. Bolivia, Colombia, El Salvador, Haiti, Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic register the highest drop-out rates — 40% or more. In almost half of the 21 countries having statistics, 10% or more of students repeat primary grades. Brazil and Guatemala have the highest repetition rates, both greater than 15%. Nevertheless, the region’s adult literacy rate is 87%, the highest in the developing world. Progress and innovations: The primary schooling rate has passed from less than 60% in 1960 to 90%, and the region has the highest ratio in the developing world of teachers per inhabitant. Escuela Nueva in Colombia has become a model for flexible schooling and community building.; Guatemala created a thousand community schools in 1997; Brazil, Paraguay and Peru have launched similar initiatives. Taken from: UNICEF, "The Situation of the World’s Children", 1999. Internet: http://www.unicef.org.

 

Senegal: Rights of the Child Clubs (extracts) The Ndatte Yalla School of Saint-Louis has opened a Rights of the Child Club, with the objective of spreading human rights and making them concrete elements in daily life. Children’s games of rounds and the baobab game promote rights and responsibilities, condemn all forms of violation, castigate racism and call for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms. These activities are enriched by inter-school correspondence, solidarity actions and the school library. Taken from: "Education for International Comprehension. An idea which has made its own way". Prepared by Lucie-Mami Noor Mkaké for the International Bureau of Education, 1998, p.36.

 

To help girls go further in Africa (extracts) Wanting very much to do something for the education of girls in Africa, 60 visionary and influent women — Ministers of Education in office or not, Vice-Rectors of universities and education specialists — created FAWE (Forum for African Women Educationalists). For the Forum, no problem is unsolvable, even that of financing. "We do not ever want to hear the lack of resources used as an excuse for not guaranteeing education for all", explains Mrs. Gachukia. "Africa has the required resources, internally and externally. What it needs, is for them to be correctly managed for the benefit of everyone." With 26 associate members, including male participants, Ministers of Education or high-level supporters, and 31 branches in all regions of Sub-Saharan Africa, the Forum has been working since 1992 to promote education for all, particularly for girls, through legal speeches, concrete measures and political reforms. In 1994, quoting conclusions of its own research, FAWE managed to exert pressure on the Ministers of Education of a number of African countries for them to modify practices that stopped pregnant adolescents from attending school. "Our message affirms that education is the right of every child", specified Mrs. Gachukia, "even the young girl about to have a baby, and it is not the privilege of those who are not pregnant." Taken from: UNICEF, "The Situation of the World’s Children", 1999.

 

In India: help the poor choose schooling (extracts) In Andhra Pradesh, the fifth largest Indian state, 75 villages no longer use child labor and all of their children are in school, for a large part thanks to the actions led over the past years by the M. Vekatarangaiya Foundation (MVF). Since its launching seven years ago, the program has been driven by two objectives: no child should have a salaried work; all must go to school. The MVF program began in 1991 in five villages with the schooling of 16 children, exclusively girls. In 1998, more that 80,000 boys and girls, from 5 to 14 years old, in 500 villages, are sent by the MVF to public schools in the rural district of Ranga Reddy. "First of all, we needed to persuade the community that children should not work", explains Shanta Sinha, Foundation spokesperson and professor of political science at the University of Hyderabad. "It’s a task made very difficult due to many conflicts of interest: parents lose a fixed income and employers lose low-cost labor. It also greatly increases the number of children that a teacher needs to look after and creates additional responsibilities for the entire community." How can this success be explained? "The idea of the Foundation," says Professor Sinha, "is that in many cases, children are put to work because they do not go to school, and not the opposite." MVF’s experience clearly refutes the predominant theory that it is economic necessity which forces parents to choose work for their children rather than schooling. The poor families of Andhra Pradesh, when they have the possibility and are encouraged, voluntarily take their children from the labor market in order to enroll them in school. Taken from: UNICEF, "The Situation of the World’s Children", 1999.

VI. Conclusions: Education, a Common Good of Mankind?

The concept of mankind’s common good relies on the will to share and to preserve the past. It expresses a choice of values chosen in the name of the higher interests of the human species.

Despite all of the calls for the creation of a better world, more just and responsible, education today remains one of the poor cousins of mankind’s common good. The will to throw off the yoke of ignorance through education, knowledge as a measure of freedom and prosperity, these are the statements which deserve to be inscribed with those that militate in favor of the quality of life on earth. Which reasons could create obstacles to them?

A number of factors can explain the issues confronting the right to education in today’s world. These factors are complex and interact with each other in social, political and economic contexts that are extremely different on a global scale. Nevertheless, a number of these factors are known. They have often been highlighted in scientific research, during international meetings and by numerous NGOs. In this respect, one must note the lack of political willingness, both common and specific to States, to eradicate illiteracy, the unequal distribution of resources, the poverty endemic to certain sub-regions, armed conflicts, etc. With regard to education, one must add to these political-economic factors: the insufficiencies observed in the initial and continuing education of teachers around the world, the consideration of human rights and peace education activities as supplementary to scholastic curricula. Add to these impediments, the fact that in poor countries, the data necessary to evaluate the state of education is not to be had. In this case, the lack of detailed portraits constitutes a serious brake to the implementation of any measures seeking to promote and ensure education for all.

 

Education for all is the open door to the wellbeing of the mind and body. Because of this and because human beings everywhere on earth are similar, shouldn’t education be proclaimed common good of mankind? Don’t the examples of promising experiences cited above lead us in this direction? Shouldn’t we invite the "international community" to assume its responsibilities and give real meaning to this statement from the Preamble of the UDHR: "Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world"? The words of the Secretary-General of the United Nations invite us to take stock of such an ambition: "Yes, the Declaration constitutes our common proclamation of human rights, but unfortunately, the common call to action is yet to come. Violations of human rights rest a widespread reality that we have not been able — and in some cases, have not wished — to eradicate." (15) After an examination of the conscience, a rallying cry for action in the future?

References

(1) Article 26 of the UDHR:

1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and o the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.

(2) Article 13 of the Covenant:

1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to education. They agree that education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. They further agree that education shall enable all persons to participate effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
2. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize that, with a view to achieving the full realization of this right:
(a) Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all;
(b) Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational secondary education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all be every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
(c) Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education;
(d) Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for those persons who have not received or completed the whole period of their primary education;
(e) The development of a system of schools at all levels shall be actively pursued, an adequate fellowship system shall be established, and the material conditions of teaching staff shall be continuously improved.
3. The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians to choose for their children schools, other than those established by the public authorities, which conform to such minimal educational standards as may be laid down or approved by the State and to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions.
4. No part of this article shall be construed so as to interfere with the liberty of individuals and bodies to establish and direct educational institutions, subject always to the observance of the principles set forth in paragraph 1 of this article and to the requirement that the education given in such institutions shall conform to such minimum standards as may be laid down by the State.

(3) Article 28 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child:

1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving
this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in particular:
(a) Make primary education compulsory and available free to all;
(b) Encourage the development of different forms of secondary education, including general and vocational education, make them available and accessible to every child, and take appropriate measures such as the introduction of free education and offering financial assistance in case of need;
(c) Make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by every appropriate means;
(d) Make educational and vocational information and guidance available and accessible to all children;
(e) Take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction of drop-out rates.
2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school discipline is administered in a manner consistent with the child’s human dignity and in conformity with the present Convention.
3. States Parties shall promote and encourage international cooperation in matters relating to education, in particular with a view to contributing to the elimination of ignorance and illiteracy throughout the world and facilitating access to scientific and technical knowledge and modern teaching methods. In this regard, particular account shall be taken of the needs of developing countries.

(4) At the close of the World Education Forum, held in Dakar in April 2000, delegates of the 181 countries present adopted a framework of action that delayed until the year 2015 attainment of the objective of ensuring “quality primary education that is compulsory and free” for all children. The Forum was more prudent concerning adults as the participating countries committed to “improve the level of literacy of adults by 50%[…].” In: UNESCO, http://www2.unesco.org/wef.

(5) Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. “Fundamental Questions Concerning the
Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Draft. General
Observation 13”. HR/CESCR/NONE/1999/13. Ge-99-44797.

(6) EIP (1999). “With regard to the draft of general observation 13 concerning the right to education (Article
13 of the Covenant).” Document prepared by Ramdane Babadji on behalf of EIP.

(7) UNICEF: http://www.unicef.org/french/sowc99/a006a.htm

(8) Human Rights Commission. Intermediate report presented by Mrs. Katarina Tomasevski, Special
Rapporteur on the Right to Education, in accordance with Resolution 199/25 of the Human Rights
Commission. E/CN.4/2000/6, February 1, 2000.

(9) October-December 1998.

(10) UNECSO: http://unescostat.unesco.org/fr/stats/ (last consulted April 14, 2000). As stated above, these
data are indicators and are subject to change. In certain cases, they may only be estimates. For example:
“The length of school life is subject to caution when making comparisons between countries, because
neither the length of the school year nor the quality of teaching are necessarily the same in each country.
Furthermore, as this indicator does not take into account the repetition rate, it is not entirely comparable
between countries practicing automatic promotion and those where repetition is allowed. It must also be
noted that, according to the country, data concerning numbers of teachers do not take into account
continuing education[…].” See: http://unescostat.unesco.org/.

(11) “La gratuité scholaire, les collectes de fond spéciaux, la privatisation et la sour-traitance des services: un
désengagement grave de la part de l’Etat”. http://www.ceq.qc.ca/educat/reforme/virage5.htm#haut.

(12) Joint UNESCO/ILO conference on structural adjustment programs and the condition of teachers (Final
report. Dakar, June 23-26, 1997. Part 2: the impact of structural adjustment programs on education).

(13) ILO. “Values to defend, changes to undertake. Social justice in a globalizing economy : A project for the
ILO”. Geneva, 1994, p. 58.

(14) “L’école et les valeurs démocratiques”. Geneva: Thématique No. 4.
http://www.eipcifedhop.org /publications/thematique4/thematique4.html. References cited by the
author: Duru-Bellat, Marie and Agnès Henrio van Zanten (1992), “Sociologie de l’école”. Paris:Armand
Colin. Mendel, Gérard. (1971), “Pour décoloniser l’enfant. Sociopsychanalyse de l’authorité”. Paris: Payot.

(15) Speech given Monday, March 16, 1998, in Geneva, during the opening of the 54th Session of the United Nations Human Rights Commission.